Versions of Libertarianism

Introduction The doctrine of libertarianism entails that people have inherent or natural rights. These rights should not be taken away (Shaw and Vincent 15). It is an immoral act for anyone or for the governments to deny people their rights.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Versions of Libertarianism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Examples of these natural rights include the right to own property, the right to personal autonomy and the right to use unused resources. According to this school of thought, the society can cooperate and coexist well when people respect their natural rights. The paper delineates the two versions of libertarianism namely total libertarianism and moderate libertarianism. Total libertarianism According to this version of libertarianism, people are protected by the government. The government has the obligation of ensuring that all the rights of people are protected. The government needs t o formulate rules that ensure individuals are well protected. Therefore, the citizens should be protected from activities like breach of contracts, fraud, theft and any subjection of force. Moderate libertarianism This version of libertarianism ensures that the government protects free and fair competition in the markets. People should be allowed to carry on with their businesses and other activities without restriction provided they are not violating the rights of others. For instance, there should be no monopolies, oligopolies and integrations in the market. The market should be free to allow people make progress in their duties without restrictions.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Strengths of total libertarianism One of the strengths of total libertarianism is that it ensures that people are protected from mistreatment. People have equal rights and nobody should violate them. Fur ther, it ensures that people coexist well in a society. It fosters transparency and honesty in the society as people respect each other’s rights. For instance, no person should steal someone’s property as this would amount to violation of natural rights. Weaknesses One weakness is that it is difficult for human beings to govern themselves. Therefore, a government should be formed to ensure that these rights are practiced. Further, the government, which is bestowed the responsibility of ensuring the protection, may not have the right mechanism or may be biased in its decisions, hence can have negative impact on the process. Strength of the moderate libertarianism This ensures that people cooperate and coexist with one another without restrictions or limitations. It enhances unity in the society. Moreover, it promotes the spirit of togetherness and discipline in a society as people make decisions at free will. Weaknesses libertarianism This form of government poses a ris k of exploitation, especially in situations when it does not participate in decision-making. For instance, it leads to monopolies that may exploit innocent people.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Versions of Libertarianism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More People may take the law in their hands and cause harm to others due to the absence of a body like the government to monitor their moves. Of these two free market philosophies, total libertarianism makes more sense. It ensures that the rights of an individual are fully protected. No person is supposed to be deprived of such rights. Therefore, this allows people in a society to respect and coexist with one another well. This philosophy best addresses the current unequal distribution of wealth. The society is required to use what they have and assist one another. It is the right of every individual to own property and use available resources to uplift his/her life . Therefore, total libertarianism gives an equal opportunity for every member of the society to use resources to amass wealth. There is no restriction, hence it can help to alleviate unequal wealth distribution facing the world today. Works Cited Shaw, William, and Vincent Barry. Moral Issues in Business. 12th ed. Paperback, 2012. Print. This essay on Versions of Libertarianism was written and submitted by user Dirty F0x to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Educational Linguistics

Educational Linguistics Free Online Research Papers 1. 00 INTRODUCTION First named as a field 30 years ago and defined in two introductory books (Spolsky, 1978; Stubbs, 1986), the title â€Å"educational linguistics† was proposed by Bernard Spolsky in 1972 for a discipline whose primary task would be â€Å"to offer information relevant to the formulation of language education policy and to its implementation† (1974:554). It is an area of study that integrates the research tools of linguistics and other related disciplines of the social sciences in order to investigate holistically the broad range of issues related to language and education. In his book â€Å"The Handbook of Educational Linguistics†, Spolsky (2008) says that he first proposed the term â€Å"educational linguistics† (EL) because of his dissatisfaction with efforts to define the field of applied linguistics and of his belief in the close relationship among research, theory, policy, and practice. He asserted that it should be a problem-oriented discipline, focusing on the needs of practice and drawing from available theories and principles of relevant fields including many subfields of linguistics (Hornberger, 2001). Pica also supports this idea and sees it as a problem- and practice- based field â€Å"whose research questions, theoretical structures, and contributions of service are focused on issues and concerns in education† (1994: 265). With the responsibility it has taken for L1 and L2 learning, EL has become particularly influential on the scholars engaged in Foreign Language Education (FLE), who attempt to understand how teachers teach and how students learn languages in schools, and especially how they acquire foreign literacy skills, that is, the ability not only to comprehend and interpret but also to create written texts in the foreign language. FLE has become, since the 1920s, a highly scientific field of research that draws its insights mostly from social and educational psychology, thus educational linguistics (Kramsch, 2000). In the following sections, educational linguistics will be examined in detail creating associations with foreign language learning/teaching (FLL/FLT). In addition to the background information and its relations to a number of approaches, theories, and methods; its principles and how they are implemented in ELT settings will be discussed. Moreover, its relations to language teacher education and its contributions to FLL and FLT will be put forward. Finally, advantages and disadvantages of educational linguistics will be given in an objective way. 2.00 RELATED APPROACHES, THEORIES, AND METHODS The problem-oriented nature of EL leads it to look to linguistics together with other relevant disciplines such as theoretical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, anthropological linguistics, neurolinguists, clinical linguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis and educational psychology. This transdiciplinary structure provides it to be associated with a number of approaches, theories and methods. 2.01 Whole Language Approach Rigg (1991) claims that the term â€Å"whole language† comes from educators not from linguists. It is an approach developed by educational linguists in 1980s to teach literacy in the mother tongue, which is one of the important issues that educational linguists are concerned. In this approach, it is emphasized that learning goes from whole to part for the reason that the whole is not equal to the sum of the parts. Actually, it can be traced back to Gestalt Psychology, which is a theory of mind and brain proposing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic. Similarly, Whole Language Approach adopts the view that learning cannot be achieved through isolated entities; that exacly corresponds to the educational linguists’ hatred for segmental phonogy and their insistance on educational phonology. 2.02 Humanistic Approach Humanistic Approach originated by Carl Rogers in 1951 (Demirezen, 2008), also has close links with EL in the sense that it focuses on the emotional side of learning and the principles such as learner-centeredness, cooperation and unearting students’ potentials, which are also basic elements of educational psychology, and thus EL. 2.03 Communicative Approach Communicative Approach is also associated with EL regarding the idea that the fundamental aim of language instruction should be communicating in the target language. In order to achieve this, it is not sufficient to have a comprehensive knowledge of language forms and functions; what is further needed is exchange of meanings in real communication. 2.04 Discourse Theory Discourse theory and especially discourse analysis play a significant role in Educational Linguistics. As Stubb (1986) stresses that it is important to distinguish between language in education and linguistics in education, referring to the need to study language â€Å"in its own terms† (1986:232), as a discourse system, rather than treating language at the level of isolated surface features, ignoring its abstract, underlying, sequential and hierarchic organization. 2.05 Interactionist Theory In parallel with communicative approach, interactionist theory also puts emphasis on the effect of social environment in which linguistic competence can be turned out to be communicative competence through interaction and by the help of nonverbal components, much more meaningful language learning can be achieved, as proposed by educational linguists. It is worth noting that â€Å"classroom interaction† is the core of educational linguistics research. According to the associations given above, it is obvious that communicative language teaching, silent way, suggestopedia, TPR and other methods such as task-based and competency-based language teaching can also be linked to educational linguistics. 3.00 THE BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS As a research area, educational linguistics is very young. Its birth occured in 1972 with the works of Bernard Spolsky in America. As mentioned earlier, it grew from the discomfort with the ambiguity of the term â€Å"applied linguistics†. Therefore, the history of educational linguistics is inextricably linked to applied linguistics. Since its inception, applied linguistics has had a broad scope, but it is language and education that has come to be dominant (Spolsky, 2008). In 1950s, it included a wide range of topics (linguistic geography, dictionary and literature, rhetoric, stylistics, lexicography, general language planning, etc.); however, while ELT was gaining momentum in 1960s and booming by the 1970s, many of these areas which were included in applied linguistics either received less attention or became the object of interest of other developing areas of study. The problems and controversies regarding the nature and scope of applied linguistics were driving forces in Spolsky’s decision to formulate a more precise title for the research studies specifically related to language and education. Moreover, there was also an implication in the term applied linguistics that linguistics is simply applied to issues of social practice. Such a â€Å"unidirectional† approach is undesirable and even dangerous especially in education where attempts by linguists to insert their theories directly into practice have led to disastrous results in, for example, phonemic approaches to reading and audiolingual approaches to general language learning (Spolsky, 2003: 503). Spolsky felt that applied linguistics in broad sense obscures the work specifically devoted to language and education. He also felt that to use applied linguistics in a narrow sense to refer to only language education research obscures the multiplicity of the work being done within the field in other domains. Namely, the term applied linguistics was imprecise and disadvantaging for everyone concerned (Spolsky, 2008). He first set fourth his vision for its nature in a presentation at the third AILA congress in 1972, later published in its proceedings. Then, in 1976, the department of Educational Linguistics was established at the University of Pennsylvania’s Graduate School of Education within the deanship of Dell Hymes (Hornberger, 2001). In 1978, Spolsky published a seminal monograph on educational linguistics. Moreover, in 1984, the journal Working Papers in Educational Linguistics has been established, and since then, sixteen volumes have been published under student editorial direction which include topics ranging from speech act analysis and classroom discourse to language planning and second language acquisition. At the beginning, people thought that his objective was to provide a new label for applied linguistics. This was largely stemming from a view of applied linguistics as being solely occupied with language and education. However, it was later understood that it’s a â€Å"unified field within the wider discipline of applied linguistics† (Spolsky,1978: 2). And today, it has turned out to be an independent field whose â€Å"starting point is always the practice of education and the focus is squarely on the role of language in learning and teaching (Hornberger, 2001: 19). Now, it is widely believed that it is EL which should be responsible for L1 and L2 learning, not applied linguistics. 4.00 THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS Concerning the nature and composition of EL, Spolsky (2008) puts forward that language teaching takes place in a school and is closely tied to sociological, economic, political, and psychological factors. Therefore, a good language education policy or effective methods of implementation will not ignore linguistics and the other related fields but will represent much more than an application of linguistics. In this respect, educational linguistics is concerned with the dynamic ways in which theory, research, policy, and practice inter-relate, and all work done under the rubric of educational linguistics is focused on this relationship. Actually, what is distinctively important in his original formulation is his â€Å"problem-oriented approach† to doing educational linguistics (Hornberger, 2001). Problem-oriented nature of Educational Linguistics In educational linguistics, one does not simply apply disciplinary knowledge to a specific situation. Instead, the researcher starts with a problem (or theme) related to language and education and then synthesizes the research tools in his/her intellectual repertoire to investigate or explore it (Hornberger and Hult, 2006). Here, the synthesis of research tools refers to a number of methods used in related fields for data acquisition and analysis such as tutorials, observations, surveys, questionnaires, statistics, national/international anthropological archives, goverment information sources, etc. All these research tools present educational linguists the data from different perspectives and help attaining reliable and valid findings for a specific situations. Still, Spolsky admits that linguistics has a central role to play and it is in this area that most educational linguists will have their primary training. However, while there has been a consensus on the relevance of linguistics for education (and also education for linguistics), there is still less clarity as to the nature of this relationship between them: is it application, implication, interpertation or mediation? Or is it coexistance, collaboration, complementarity or compatibility? Spolsky insistently emhasizes that educational linguistics â€Å"should not be, as it often seems, the application of the latest linguistic theory to any available problem†, but rather a problem-oriented discipline focused on the needs of practice (1975:347). He argues that linguistics has applications to and implementations for education, both directly through language descriptions and secondarily through linguistic subfields. At the same time, such a relationship includes the â€Å"coexistance of activities, collaboration of efforts, complementarity of contributions, and compatibility of interests† – a balanced reciprocity which may well serve as a model for theory and practice in the whole of the educational linguistics field (Hornberger, 2001: 9). In educational linguistics, the focus on educational practice is both indirect and direct. The knowledge generated in EL may be used to guide the process of crafting sound educational language policy which is designed to influence practice. On the other hand, this knowledge may be used to guide sound teaching practice as it is implemented in relation to educational language policy. Then, the scope of educational linguistics, Spolsky (2008) later elaborates, is the intersection of linguistics and related language sciences with formal and informal education. One of the core themes in educational linguistics is language policy. Within language policy, it is educational language policy that they are concerned. Educational language policy forms a part of wider national language planning, focusing specifically on the educational sector as â€Å"the transmitter and perpetuator of culture† (Kaplan and Baldauf, 1997: 123). Other themes dealt within EL can be specified as L1 and L2 acquisition, language choice, language and ethnicity, descriptive analysis of speech acts and discourse, educational implications of linguistic diversity, language planning, bilingual education, spoken interaction in professional settings, and biliteracy. 4.01 Subfields of Educational Linguistics Thanks to its problem-oriented nature, educational linguistics has close links with a number of disciplines which are regarded as ‘subfields’ of educational linguistics by Hornberger (2001). This also proves that EL is an independent field, not a subfield of applied linguistics any more, but it has its own subfields. They can be tabulated as follows: Theoretical Linguistics: It is a branch of linguistics concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge. It involves the search for and explanation of linguistic universals. Syntax, phonology, morphology, and semantics are the core of theoretical linguistics. Sociolinguistics: It is the study of effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used. The chief contribution of sociolinguistics in educational settings has been to draw attention to the differences between language use in the classroom and in students homes and communities. Because it is important to teaching and learning, language is heavily regulated in classrooms. Teacher talk is the name given to the special register that teachers use. It is a means of inducting pupils into specific topics and approaches and imparting instruction. Like all registers, Teacher Talk has developed certain conventions and properties. It typically comprises longer and more complex utterances than the teacher expects from the pupils (Mehan, 1979). Psycholinguistics: It is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields such as psychology, cognitive science and linguistics. Linguistic-related areas are phonetics and phonology (focusing on how the brain processes and understands these sounds), morphology (relationships among words and their formations), syntax (how words are combined together to form sentences), semantics, and pragmatics. Anthropological Linguistics: It is the study of the relations between language and culture, and the relations among human biology, cognition and language. It studies humans through the languages that they use. Neurolinguistics: It is the science concerned with the human brain mechanisms underlying the comprehension, production and abstract knowledge of language, be it spoken, signed or written. Neurolinguistics has highlighted the special role of that part of the human brain known as Broca’s area in crucial aspects of human language, namely syntax: the component of language that involves recursion. Clinical Linguistics: It is a sub-discipline of linguistics and involves the application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology. The International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association is the unofficial organization of the field and was formed in 1991. They conduct researches with the aims of advancing techniques in assessment and remediation in Speech-Language Pathologists and offering insights to formal linguistic theories. Pragmatics: It is the study of the ability of natural language speakers to communicate more than what is explicitly stated. The ability to understand another speaker’s intended meaning is called pragmatic competence. Another perspective of pragmatics is that it deals with the ways we reach our goals in communication. Discourse Analysis: It is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken or signed language use. Discourse analysis has been taken up in a variety of social science disciplines such as linguistics, sociology and psychology. As stated earlier, it has close links with educational linguistics in the sense that language is a discourse system so it should not be treated at the level of isolated surface features. Educational Psychology: It is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. It informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. It both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. Actually, it is one of the most important fields from which educational linguistics benefit. It is clear that linguistics and psychology are indispensable parts of educational linguistics. However, language teaching should not look to educational psychology or linguistics for revelations or discoveries on how to teach language, but should learn to utilize these disciplines to make the vast practical experience in the teaching of foreign languages more meaningful, to evolve definite principles of language teaching and consolidate them in a true science of language learning (Politzer, 1958). 5.00 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS The principles of Educational Linguistics got matured around 1970s by Spolsky giving references to a number of related disciplines. Giving a general framework for the practices of foreign language education, they can be specified as follows: 1. Literacy is at the core of foundations of education. Literacy can be defined as the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. It involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in the wider society. For this reason, EL stresses that literacy should be in primary consideration at each and every stage of educational processes. 2. It is educational linguistics which should be responsible for L1 and L2 acquisition, not applied linguistics. As an independent field of inquiry with its own departments, journals, conferences and scholars specialized in the field, EL is the one which should conduct researches and studies specifically on L1 and L2 learning, and thus seek ways for improving opportunities in language learning contexts. 3. Verbal intelligence is one of the most-used predictors of educational success. Therefore, learners should be encouraged to have sufficient amount of linguistic competence and then turn it into communicative competence. 4. Education needs linguistics since the improvement in language skills of writing, reading, speaking, and listening can only be achieved through knowledge about language. Spolsky (1978) himself admits that linguistics is an indispensible part of language learning process. Without knowing about language itself, it is impossible to use it properly. The important point is the ‘proportion’ that should be allocated for linguistics in language learning. It should be as it is required in foreign language education, not more than that. 5. A learner-centered, holistic, humanistic, and problem-oriented language teaching approach should be adopted. Only in this way, learners’ full potential can be unearthed and they can fulfill the communicative functions of language use. 6. The use of target language in real communication should be the focus of foreign language education. Literacy in foreign language can only be achieved through the use of target language in all stages of learning, and thus teachers should create opportunities for learners to use the language outside the classroom. Especially in the context of foreign language learning and teaching, this can be managed through the use of technological devices. 7. Language education is a whole together with individials, educational setting, curriculum design, and educational language policy. Therefore, language learning process should be considered as a whole with its components and all planning should be made within this framework. In the light of these principles, educational linguists aim at organizing classroom activities so as to fulfill basic functions of foreign language education such as literacy, communicative competence, learner-centered language learning tasks, and attempt to consider language learning/teaching issue in a holistic manner including learners, schools, curricula and national policies of the governments. 6.00 EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS’ RELATIONS TO ELT Even though it is considered as a young field, educational linguistics has been very active since 1970s in the sense that it has strong arguments related to the teaching of English as a second or foreign language. Its emphasis on â€Å"classroom interaction† is one of them. Educational linguists think that as well as it is the core of educational linguistics research, classroom interaction is a significant part of language teaching methodology. It is also important since it is closely associated with power and control in classrooms and schools. Since the main objective of ELT practices is to be able to make students equipped with necessary knowledge of language so that they can communicate well in real world, educational linguistics’ focus on classroom interaction is quite reasonable. On the other hand, Pica (1994) notes that educational linguistics research has shed light upon primarily two domains of practice: design and implementation of learner-centered, communicative curricula and professionalization of the classroom teacher as decision-making educator. Stubbs (1986) also supports the idea and adds that educational linguistics provides teachers with the knowledge of language itself and how to teach it, so this, in turn, helps educators tackle with English language education problems such as the teaching of vocabulary, reading and writing. Teacher’s role is very important in this respect. As well as being a good source of knowledge for the learners, s/he should also act like a psychologist so as to determine proper applications in accordance with learners’ mood, perceptions, backgrounds, etc. Namely, s/he should be a professional need analyst. According to EL, ELT practitioners are required to create an autonomous, interactive and meaningful language learning environment for the learners while making necessary decisions in accordance with the school and the state policies because classroom applications are thought together with its hierarchical structure in EL. Similarly, learners are regarded as the center of all classroom practices and thus educational objectives of the school and the state. All materials are presented in a meaningful way which enables learners to see the whole picture first and then getting the necessary knowledge through this holistic structure, not in isolation. Similarly, that is why educational linguists reject segmental phonology, but creat educational phonology to be used in language education. 7.00 EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION The recent recommendation by Fillmore and Snow (2002) that all teachers need to know quite a bit about language has revived old debates about the role of linguistics in educating teacher trainees. At the beginning of the 20th century, the predominant assumption was that teachers were born and not made, or if they were made, they were self-made. Therefore little attention was paid to the idea of foreign language teacher education. By the 1920s, however, articles began to appear that outlined curricula for the training of high school language teachers. One of the problems confronting teacher education programs in the early years of the century was lack of speaking ability on the part of candidates for certification. Teacher exams were proposed over the years to ensure a reasonable level of proficiency. They were required to pursue general methods and testing courses as well as courses in the psychology of learning. As a consequence, teachers were no longer producers, but were consumers of knowledge related to language learning and teaching. By the 1960s, teachers were expected to demonstrate both subject matter and professional competence. They were required to take courses that focused on the language itself. When linguistics courses were taught, for example, linguists in general had serious problems making linguistics relevant to teaching. Especially interesting is that in a 1964 special issue of the Modern Language Journal, a set of guidelines for teacher preparation was published. Despite the fields best efforts, one problem continued to nag the profession -the low level of language proficiency among future teachers. This was due to the fact that although teachers were knowledgeable about language itself, they were not taught how to present that knowledge in communicative ways (Lantolf, 2000). This great lack in language teacher education became booming in mid 1970s and drew special attention of educational linguists. Then they have proposed that language teachers are not –and should not be- pure linguists, thus they should learn linguistics as it is required by language education. Furthermore, EL also emphasizes that as well as language learners, teacher trainees also should be educated in a holistic and humanistic way which will enable them to teach foreign languages in the same manner, and all practices in teacher education process should aim at revealing trainees full potential in communicative competence. 8.00 EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS’ CONTRIBUTIONS TO FLL / FLT While educational linguistics contributes distinctive disciplinary focus, concepts, methods and history, it also takes distinctive form in each of the following types of curriculum (Spolsky, 2008) and comes up with novel perspectives in curriculum planning. Skills: An economistic-vocationally oriented curriculum: In this kind of curricula, teaching aims to facilitate the acquisition of skills which are seen to be discrete or separately specific, and are taught via pedagogies that stress explicit teaching, identifying sub-skills and teaching these separately and aiming through apprenticeship to combine the subskills. For instance, it may be suitable for â€Å"language for specific purposes†. Eloquence: A humanistic-intellectual paradigm: When curricula are conceptualized as in some sense â€Å"humanizing†, the educational linguistics makes use of notions of eloquence, expression, rhetoric, and elevated culture. Informing learners of timevalidated canonical thought, works of art, and literature distinguishes this class of curricula. Virtue: Paradigms of religion or social ideology: Some curricula aim to reproduce norms of life that derive from ethnicity, religious creed, or moral ideology. Educational linguistics, in this respect, serves unique goals of teaching, content sequencing, assessment, and evaluation associated with modes of practice particular to the ideology of the schools involved. Nationing: The discourse of loyal citizenship to nationality-defined states: Nationing, both in new nations intent on forging identities larger than regional or local ones and in established nations intent on preserving distinctiveness, utilizes linguistic based narration, story telling about national cohesion and unity, or subliminal and continual reminders of the persistence of nationality (Billig, 1995). On the other hand, it gave way to the emergence of Whole Language Approach in 1980s which is also called â€Å"the real books approach† since it used real books instead of coursebooks (Demirezen, 2008). Its focus on meaningful and purposeful communication in language classes enabled it to help students be at ease while communicating. In this respect, it is not wrong to say that Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory is one of the contributions of EL to the teaching and learning foreign languages. As an opposition to the traditional language learning theories, particularly Audiolingualism, it has derived from a cognitive perspective to language learning and teaching, thus attempts to find ways of creating meaningful learning situations in which learners feel comfortable and construct knowledge with their own effort. Participatory approach is another term proposed by educational linguists which means a process through which the views of all interested parties are integrated into the decision-making process ( Alatis, et all. (1996). That is why EL benefits from a number of disciplines to solve an educational problem. Educational linguistics also created a market of materials designed specifically for foreign language learning and teaching. Different text types and application-oriented materials became available all around the world. Furthermore, it became influential on the emergence a number of language teaching methods such as Silent Way, TPR, content-based and task-based language teaching, which are all holistic, humanistic, and problem-oriented in nature. But most importantly, educational linguistics enabled L1 and L2 learning to be an independent field with its own research studies, approaches and applications for better educational opportunities. 9.00 CRITICISM OF EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS Educational linguistics is a relatively recent issue that draws scholars’ and researchers’ attention from a number of disciplines and thus takes various reflections concerning its strong sides and inadequacies. They can be listed as follows: 9.01 Advantages of Educational Linguistics It has been understood that there is a need for more research into teachers’ explicit beliefs about, and understanding of, language in order to enable us to understand teachers’ central role as educational linguists, that is, as conscious analyst of linguistic processes. Educational linguists made an attempt to address a fundamental problem –the language barrier to education- i.e. the instance where a child acquires a vernacular language informally and is required by the educational system to acquire a different, standard language (Spolsky, 1974a), a problem which recurs for millions of children daily, weekly, and yearly all over the world. It has elucidated that education and linguistics are in need of each other all the time; especially teaching linguistics to the educators is important so that they can cope with the problems such as teaching vocabulary, reading, and writing. EL follows from this notion that educational linguists variously investigate a host of themes related to individuals, the institutions they inhabit, and the socities in which both are situated, all as they relate to language and education. This holistic perspective makes it so strong and successful. 9.02 Disadvantages of Educational Linguistics Although educational linguistics claims that it is an independent but transdisciplinary field any more, there are some other arguments which insist that it is still a sub-branch of applied linguistics. For instance, van Lier (1994) puts forward that researchers working on language learning should consider themselves to be linguists who do applied linguistics who do educational linguistics. In a similar way, applied linguists also claim that for a discipline to be an independent one, it has to create its own approaches, theories and methods. Therefore, they assert that EL cannot be regarded as a seperate field in this respect. However, the contradiction that applied linguistics –considering itself as an independent field- also does not have its own approaches, theories, or methods weakens this argument. The inadequecy of EL concerning these aspects can be explained best with its being such a young field to produce its own approaches, theories, and methods. In the course of time, educational linguistics is to come up with novel approaches in L1 and L2 learning and improve current practices with more efficient and innovative ones. 10.00 CONCLUSION Concerning Spolsky’s own words; educational linguistics starts with the assessment of a child’s communicative competence on entering school and throughout his or her career, includes the analysis of societal goals for communicative competence, and embraces the whole range of activities undertaken by an educational system to bring its students’ linguistic repertoires into closer accord with those expected by society (1978: viii). With its roots in the controversies of applied linguistics, educational linguistics has grown into a thriving field of inquiry focused on foreign language education. Its transdisciplinary nature has allowed it to flourish in a wide range of disciplinary climates. While this wide range has resulted in an impressively diverse body of knowledge with great potential to influence educational practice, it has also made it challenging to develop a sense of cohesion for educational linguistics as a whole. Although the question â€Å"Do we really need educational linguistics as a separate field? † is still echoing especially at the part of applied linguists, EL has proved that language practicioners are really in need of such a distinct field so as to specifically work on the issues belonging to this particular area: foreign language education. On the other hand, this does not mean that applied linguistics is useless any more. In the case that EL becomes insufficient to solve a particular problem related to language learning and teaching, it is applied linguistics that EL will call upon. In this respect, the two are always in juxtaposition and cannot reject the presence and significance of each other. Even though there are some oppositions concerning its independent structure, today it is obvious that educational linguistics stands powerfully as an independent but at the same time transdisciplinary discipline. This position can be summarized best with the metaphor used by Hornberger (2001): birds on a wire. He says that the shifting and repositioning nature of academic disciplines can be depicted best with this methaphor. When a new one joins their midst; if they refuse to budge, the newcomer will have to fly off again. That is to say, educational linguistics has indeed found a place on the wire amidst its peer disciplines and goes on its way with strong paces. BIBLIOGRAPHY Akar, N. (1991). Educational Linguistics within English Language Teachng Departments in Turkey. Doctoral Dissertation. Hacettepe University. Alatis, J.E., Straehle, C.A., Ronkin, M. and Gallenberger, B. (Eds.). (1996). Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics. Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C. Attardo, S. and Brown, S. (2005). What’s the Use of Linguistics? Pre-Service English Teachers’ Beliefs towards Language Use and Variation, pp. 91-100. In Applied Linguistics and Language Teacher Education. Bartel, N. (Ed.). Springer, US. Billig, M. (195). Banal Nationalism. London: Sage. Demirezen, M. (2008). Whole Language (Integrated) Approach and Its Aplications to ELT. Hacettepe University (Unpublished). Fillmore, L. and Snow, C. (2002). What teachers need to know about language. In C. Adger, C. Snow, and D. Christian, (Eds.) What Teachers Need to Know About Language. Washington, DC, and McHerry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems Co., Inc. Gee, J. P. (2004). Educational Linguistics. In Davies, A. and Elder, C. (eds.). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing. Hornberger, N.H. (2001). Educational Linguistics as a Field: A View from Penn’s Program on the Occasionof its 25th Anniversary. University of Pennsylvania. Hornberger, N.H and Hult, F.M. (2006). Educational Linguistics. In K. Brown (ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. (2nd edn. pp.76-81). Oxford: Elsvier. Hudson, R. (2004). Why education needs linuistics (and vice versa). Linguistics, 40, 105- 130. Cambridge University Press. Kaplan, R. B. and Baldauf, R. B. (1997). Language Planning: From Practice to Theory. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Kramsch, C. (2000). Second Language Acquisition, Applied Linguistics, and the Teaching of Foreign Languages. The Modern Language Journal, Vol.84, No.3, pp.311-326. Lantolf, J. P. (2000). Introduction to the Special Issue: A Century of Language Teaching and Research: Looking Back and Looking Ahead. The Modern Language Journal, Vol.84, No.4. pp.467-471. Mehan, H. (1979). Learning Lessons. Cambridge, MA. Harward University Press. Pica, T. (1994). The language educator at work in the learner-centered classroom: Communicate, decision-make, and remember to apply the (educational) linguistics. In J.E. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics, 264-288. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Politzer, R. L. (1958). On the Relation of Linguistics to Language Teaching. The Modern Language Journal, Vol.42, No.2, pp. 65-68. Rigg, P. (1991). Whole Language in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 25, 521-542. Spolsky, B. (1974). The Navajo Reading Study: An Illustration of the scope and nature of educational linguistics. In J. Qvistgaard (Ed.), Applied Linguistics: Problem and Solutions (Vol.3, pp.553-565). Heidelberg: Julius Groos Verlag. Spolsky, B. (1974a). Linguistics and the language barrier to education. In T.A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, 12, 2027-2038. The Hague: Mouton. Spolsky, B. (1975). Linguistics in Practice: The Navajo Reading Study. Theory into Practice, 14(5), 347-352. Spolsky, B. (1978). Educational Linguistics: An Introduction. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. Spolsky, B. (2003). Educational Linguistics. In W. J. Frawley (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Vol. 1, 502-505. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Spolsky, B. And Hult, F. M. (eds.). (2008). The Handbook of Educational Linguistics. Blackwell Publishng. Stubbs, M. (1986). Educational Linguistics. New York: Basil Blackwell. van Lier, L. (1994). Educational linguistics: Field and project. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics 1994, 197-209. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. van Lier, L. (2004). The Ecoogy and Semiotics of Language Learning: A Sociocultural Perspective. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Research Papers on Educational LinguisticsStandardized TestingInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesResearch Process Part OneThree Concepts of PsychodynamicOpen Architechture a white paperThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenThe Project Managment Office System

Philosophy of Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Philosophy of Law - Essay Example Judges have the role to ensure that they perform their roles properly by striving to promote the common good of all citizens since rights of individuals are more important in any case. Law is viewed as a way of condemning evil or wrong doings of some people in society. Therefore, according to human positivism law ought to be accounted for because it views the central case of the government as self government of people who enjoy their freedom and have appointed the said government in power to protect them against anarchy (Dworkin 47). Law is universal in the sense that it is conceived in the reason of the leader and transferred to the reason of the subjects. The legal system hangs together as a set of requirement since they are specifications of the duty and aspirations to treat people as entitled in a fair and just manner. That is to say that, people should be ruled as free individuals not puppets to be managed and kept by manipulation and fear. This is only possible in the legal system if the judges promote such fairness in the process and procedures of maintaining the law in order to strengthen the efficacy of the law, this should not be seen as judicial activism that aims to ruin the legal system. In order to clearly understand rights, they should be perceived in the context of constraints on the types of reasons that institutions or government may legitimately act upon them. Therefore, the legal system is set up in society so as to protect the rights of individuals. In addition, rights can be well understood from the basis of simple protection for certain individual interests against the requirements of the common good. Judges should know that rights and rules are different in the legal system in that rights are more fundamental than rules because rights exist before their description in aspect of rules (Dworkin 59). This argument justifies the statement that

Compliance managment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Compliance managment - Research Paper Example In this way the organization or institution gets to limit damages and manage the risk posed by non-compliance. In the compliance management scenario some regulations and policies were violated. The patient’s health information is expected to be handled confidentially but Mr. Stephen’s health information got passed on to his family members and its privacy was lost. In addition there is the issue of information storage that was handled incorrectly. As a result, the phone number indicated in the patient management system that could be used to reach Mr. Stephens is different from the one in the electronic health records. The first step that the compliance management officer would do is to ensure there are documented details of the entire scenario for clarity purposes. It would then be recommendable to assess the extent of damage in order to ascertain the appropriate next step which would in this case be compensation of Mr. Stephens to avoid litigation. However, if Mr. Stephens was to refuse the offer, then the clinic legal advisor would have to be contacted to engage in the legal dispute. This scenario is a violation of compliance as the organization regulations require patient information to be handled with care. Non-compliance here applies when the health records of the patient get mixed up and the health information of the patient gets passed on to the wrong recipient. Regular review of patient information would ensure that incorrect entries are identified and corrected therefore avoiding an occasion where patient information gets passed to the wring person (Lekatis, 2012). In addition, an appropriate framework should be developed that would ensure clinical staff are taught on compliance and on better clinical documentation ways. In the workflow, key compliance issues, such as confidentiality and caution when handling patient

Globalization and Migration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Globalization and Migration - Essay Example The people in this world belong to different religions, different continents, different continents, different cultures and different races. There are many differences in the ways the people living in different prospect differ. The people need to be aware of the differences and they need to explore and know more. For that reason we see that the people have started travelling around the world to know more and to get answers to the questions. This is the concepts of globalization. Globalization is the concept and the rationale in itself. It means the people are moving to other places to get more from the people who belong to the different religions and the cultures. The concept that underlies the idea of the globalization is migration. Migration is the movement of the people across the borders, from one country to the other, with the permission of the higher authorities belonging to the foreign destination country. In this way too the globalization is still there. The countries have higher authorities which are known to us as the embassies. The embassies are the authorities which the grant the foreigners the permission to make entry in their countries. This restriction to the easy and open entry is due to many factors. The main factor is the illegal activities that occur due to the foreign immigrants in the country which in the end might be harmful or detrimental for the country's safety. For the purpose of the migration some countries have lower restrictions as compared to the other countries. Illegal activities and globalization With the increase in the globalization and the increase in the people travelling to the other destinations of the world, it has been seen that the criminal activates are also increasing day by day. The ease with which the people are able to cross the borders of the countries make the people perform some illegal activities including the illegal migrations, the human smuggling or the human trafficking. This list also includes the refugees which are able to cross the borders across to the other countries and they take their refugee in the other countries. Human trafficking: The case Friman and Reich (2007) discuss that there are two concepts that might be intermixed in this case. The first concept is called the human smuggling which is very different from the human trafficking. The human smuggling means that the person wants to be transported across the border illegally and the smuggler is paid some fee for that and after being transported illegally, smuggled person is free to do any thing in the other country. In the second case the human trafficking means that the person so the persons are transported across the borders, though illegally, in addition against the will and the wish of the person being transported. The people being transported are transported force fully. The reasons underlying human trafficking The human trafficking is done so that the people are forced into some illegal work forces. This includes the forced slavery, servitude or debt bondage. In this way the trafficker deprives the person of the basic human rights of the person who is being trafficked across the border. The person is sometimes physically forced to being trafficked. It has been seen that the people are even deceived into lies such as better futures in the

Motivation in a Pharmaceutical Company in Greece

Motivation in a Pharmaceutical Company in Greece The pharmaceutical sector faces stiff competition but a motivated salesforce can provide competitive advantage and facilitate in consolidating the presence of a firm in a highly regulated market. This study will test the relevance of modern motivation theories in the context of the recent financial crisis and add to the literature. The need for motivating sales representatives in the pharmaceutical sector is discussed in the presence of downward employment pressures on the sector in Europe. This research will attempt to determine the applicability of the extrinsic and intrinsic motivators for salesforce motivation in pharmaceutical firms of Greece. The most significant extrinsic factors determined by literature include salary, opportunity of hierarchical advancement and bonuses, while the most important factors in terms of intrinsic motivation include challenging assignments, flexible work arrangements, team-based job design, verbal recognition, career development and self-efficacy. This research will identify the techniques that can be used to enhance salesforce motivation in pharmaceuticals sector of Greece. Determinants of sales representatives motivation in a Pharmaceutical company in Greece during the current recession 1.0- Introduction The sales representatives working for pharmaceutical firms in Europe face significant probability of downsizing due to the increasing focus on salesforce effectiveness measures as opposed to the traditional approach of placing importance to the size of the salesforce (Herwig 2003, pp. 42-56). The recent financial crisis has also led to the dwindling of jobs in Greece and across the European continent. The pharmaceutical industry is faced with cut-throat competition and a highly motivated salesforce can provide competitive advantage to a firm and facilitate continuing profitability and consolidation of the market share in a highly regulated market (Danner and Ruzicic 2006, pp. 2-5). This research proposal is intended to develop an appropriate approach to measure the significance of the determinants of motivation in the context of Greece and the financial crisis. 1.1- Statement of the problem What factors determine the motivation levels for sales representatives at pharmaceutical firms in Greece given the conditions prevalent during the current financial crisis? 1.2- Aims and Objectives This research aims to determine the interaction of motivational factors for the salesforce teams in pharmaceuticals with changing economic conditions. It will test the relevance of modern motivation theories in their attempt to explain the importance of the determinants of motivation in the context of an impending financial crisis in Greece. The following are the objectives of this research. To identify the factors that help determine the motivation levels for sales representatives unique to the pharmaceutical sector in Greece. To study the cultural factors that influence motivation of sales representatives. To test the impact of a lack of job security on the motivation levels of salesforce in the pharmaceutical sector. To determine the methods of motivation acceptable to sales representatives. To identify the most useful technique that can be used to enhance motivation levels of sales employees. 1.3- Significance of the research There is a scarcity of sector related studies of salesforce motivation in the context of Greece; therefore, this research highlights the debate regarding the importance of motivating sales representatives in the pharmaceutical sector (Shim 2006, pp. 6-8). This study tests the relevance of motivation theories in the context of the recent financial crisis and adds to the modern literature that can be further studied in a regional context. The need for motivating the salesforce in the pharmaceutical sector is discussed in the presence of downward employment pressures on the industry. This study intends to incorporate the cultural differences and their impact on the success of motivation techniques utilised by firms (McAlister and Vandlen 2006, pp. 1-2). 2.0- Literature Review Erez and Isen (2002, p. 1055) use the expectancy theory to predict the motivation level of an individual and test the extent of motivation created in individuals based on their perception that hard work will result in superior performance in terms of rewards, recognition and satisfaction. The study indicated that when the link between performance and outcome is specified, all three components of expectancy motivation are influenced positively (Erez and Isen 2002, pp. 1065-1066). Seijts et al., (2004, p. 227) define goal setting theory as the contention that goal commitment leads to a higher task performance compared to a vague performance goal. The results indicate that goal orientation can complement the motivation created through goal setting and influence an improvement in performance of an employee. Maslow (1954) developed a theory of motivation and personality that provided a hierarchy of needs with the satisfaction of physical needs at the lowest level of hierarchy and self actualisation at the highest level; the theory argued that the first level of hierarchy must be fulfilled before an individual can proceed to the next level. Borkowski (2010, pp.118-124) discussed the ERG theory that provides an alternative approach to the hierarchy of needs by identifying three categories of needs: existence, relatedness and growth. The existence includes all the basic necessities required by an individual to survive, relatedness facilitates the development of relationships in the society and growth relates to achievement and success (Locke and Latham 2006, pp. 265-267). However, the ERG theory suggests that an individual can attain higher levels of hierarchy before fulfilling the lower level of needs. This theory also accounts for the difference in needs between different cultures and societies and caters to the explanation of the frustration-regression principle; implying that an individual may need existence related objects once relatedness is not satisfied (Bernard 1992, pp. 56-59; John 2005, pp. 16-19). McClellands theory of needs suggests that three needs of an individual need to be satisfied including achievement, power and affiliation; individuals are motivated by a combination of these needs and some individuals may exhibit a strong tendency to be motivated by one of these factors (Borkowski 2010, pp. 125). Schultz et al., (2006, pp. 23-27) discuss the equity theory predicts that workers often tend to react to the speed of the individuals surrounding them at work. The study tests the relevance of equity theory in explaining worker motivation and find that workers tend to react to the speed of co-workers but the reactions tend to vary significantly from one individual to another. Malik and Naeem (2009, pp. 26-28) study the motivational preferences of pharmaceutical salesforce in the context of the developing world and identify using a questionnaire analysis that the three most important motivators include pay and fringe benefits, job security and promotion opportunities. It is also found that the motivation created through pay and fringe benefits has similar impact on all demographics. The motivational impact of job security was the highest amongst sales representatives with less than ten years experience owing to the high unemployment and the recent financial crisis. Therefore, it is prescribed that special emphasis should be placed on severance pay, outplacement and early retirement before initiating downsizing of pharmaceuticals salesforce (Woodbine and Liu 2010, pp. 28-30). McAlister and Vandlen (2006, pp. 1-3) highlight the importance of extrinsic and intrinsic motivators for salesforce motivation in pharmaceutical firms. The most significant extrinsic factors found in the study include salary, opportunity of hierarchical advancement and bonuses, while the most important factors in terms of intrinsic motivation include challenging assignments, flexible work arrangements, team-based job design, verbal recognitions, career development and self-efficacy. The study also argues that taking cultural and generational differences into account can also prove to significantly improve salesforce motivation. Singh (2010, p. 72) also studies the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, that may lead to higher job satisfaction in pharmaceutical salesforce and finds that growth, relationships with co-workers, promotion expectation, recognition, job security, operational procedures, delegation and quality of work supervision can lead to significant increase in m otivation (Jansson and Vessman 1997, pp. 202-203). The internal promotion schemes and growth from inside the company can improve motivation amongst salesforce. The study also indicates that demographics have no significant impact on motivation levels in sales force (Gonsalves 2008, p. 3). Longino (2007, pp. 1-13) found that salesforce motivation and performance in pharmaceutical firms is significantly high when an appropriate territorial distribution and design is used by these firms. Danner and Ruzicic (2006, pp. 1-7) argue that pharmaceutical salesforce are no more governed by the size of the team and instead by salesforce effectiveness; the widespread downsizing in the salesforce of pharmaceutical firms around Europe can lead to major concerns regarding job security and de-motivate the sales representatives. Therefore, increasing job security proves to be the most important factor for salesforce motivation in pharmaceuticals during the current financial crisis (Barnett 1999, pp. 6-10). 3.0- Research Methodology The research will utilise a combination of the qualitative and quantitative methods to determine the significance of the factors that lead to increased motivation for sales representatives (Longino 2007, pp. 1-4). The determinants of motivation highlighted by the literature review will be the focus of the analysis in the context of Greece and the recent financial crisis. The measurement of the impact of these factors on motivation levels will be quantitative; however, the research will be reinforced by a qualitative analysis of the motivation techniques used by pharmaceutical firms using a case study approach (Hongchatikul 2008, pp. 12-13). The secondary research will examine the literature that focuses on developing innovative means for handling sales representatives with different profiles and segments. Primary data for this research will be collected by developing a questionnaire for the sales representatives working at pharmaceuticals firms. 3.1- Sampling Methodology The sampling methodology chosen for this study involves a multi-stage sampling process involving two distinct phases of selection process of the firms used for analysis (Alan 2011, pp. 21-26). The initial stage involves the selection of the sectors that are the focus of this research; this is based on conscious selection of the large scale pharmaceutical firms operating in Greece. The second stage includes the selection of the sales representatives for questionnaires using a non-probability sample as the goal is to select a maximum size for the sample and the minimum sample size will be a hundred sales representatives (Gordy 2000, pp. 139-148). The research may also involve interviews with pharmaceutical firm managers depending on the resources and the cooperation available from the companies. 3.2- Resources The dissertation will accomplish a review of the literature on sales force motivation, motivation techniques and the impact of a recession on sales force motivation levels. The research resources include eminent online journals including the Science Direct, Blackwell Synergy, Jstor, Ebrary, Springer Link, Ingenta Connect, Google Books and Google Scholar, and the books and publications available at the library. The resource pool will be filtered after conducting a preliminary review of the literature available and the relevant literature will be sorted for inclusion into the dissertation. 3.3- Ethical Obligations It is crucial to uphold the integrity of research process and the ethical conduct of the researcher is manifest from the fact that a replica of all the literature and data used for the research will be maintained and made available upon request. The contact to the moral risks posed during the exploration process is also diminished by certifying that the researcher uses a manageable sample for case analysis to be able to conduct an in-depth analysis of the motivation techniques used by the selected firms (Nelson 2004, pp. 4). 4.0- Conclusion The research on salesforce motivation in the pharmaceuticals sector in Greece will not only add to the existing pool of literature on salesforce motivation but it will also create interest in the testing of modern theories of motivation and the impact of the recent financial crisis on the determinants of salesforce motivation (Iguisi 2009, pp. 147-149). This provides incentive for sector based studies on salesforce motivation and an opportunity to compare the results obtained in different industries and across diverse cultures and economies. References Alan, B., (2011). Business research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Barnett, C., (1999). Motivation theories: Integration. New Hampshire: Whittemore School of Business and Economics, University of New Hampshire. Bernard, W., (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories and research. Michigan: Sage Publishers. Borkowski, N., (2010). Organisation behaviour in healthcare. Sudbury: Jones and Barlett Publishers. Danner, S., and Ruzicic, A., (2006). The European pharmaceutical industry: Delivering sales excellence in turbulent times A roadmap for getting the basics right and exploring the future. Munich: Roland Berger. Erez, A., and Isen, A., (2002). The influence of positive effect on the components of expectancy motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 87 (6), pp. 1055-1067. Gonsalves, B., (2008). Retaining and motivating your sales force in Asia. New York: Mercer Series. Gordy, M., (2000). A comparative anatomy of credit risk models. Journal of Banking and Finance, Vol. 24 (1), pp. 119à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"149. Herwig, J., (2003). Motivate and reward: Performance appraisal and incentive systems for business success. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Hongchatikul, U., (2008). The impact of organisational development interventions on employee commitment and motivation and customer satisfaction: A case study. Bangkok: Graduate School of Business, Hua Mak Campus. Iguisi, O., (2009). Motivation related values across cultures. African Journal of Business Management, Vol. 3 (4), pp. 141-150. Jansson, S., and Vessman, J., (1997). The industrial point of view: Competence development in Pharmaceutical industry. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, Vol. 61, pp. 202-203. John, M., (2005). Organizational behaviour I. Essential theories of motivation and leadership. New York: M.E Sharpe Incorporation. Locke, E., and Latham, G., (2006). New directions in goal setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 15 (5), pp. 265-268. Longino, E., (2007). Sales management control, territory design, sales force performance, and sales organisational effectiveness in pharmaceutical industry. Boca Raton: Eric Longino. Malik, M., and Naeem, B., (2009). Motivational preferences of pharmaceutical sales force: Empirical evidence from Pakistan. Pakistan Economic and Social Review, Vol. 47 (1), pp. 19-30. McAlister, R., and Vandlen, C., (2006). What types of rewards or recognition practices motivate individuals to be creative and innovative, particularly those in RD functions whose products are developed over long time periods? Cornell: Cornell University. Nelson, K., (2004). Motivating high performance in pharmaceutical sales teams: Key compensation and team process factors. New York: Lantern Group. Rye, D., (1998). 1,001 ways to inspire: your organization, your team, and yourself. Victoria: Castle Books. Schultz, K., Schoenherr, T., and Nembhard, D., (2006). Equity theory effects on worker motivation and speed on an assembly line. Boston: Harvard Business School. Seijts, G., Latham, G., Tasa, K., and Latham, B., (2004). Goal setting and goal orientation: n integration of two different yet related literatures. Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 47 (2), pp. 227-239. Shim, S., (2006). Adoption of pharmaceutical sales force automation systems: An exploratory study. South Orange: Stillman School of Business, Seton Hall University. Singh, V., (2010). Job satisfaction among pharmaceutical sales force in South Africa: A case with special reference to Cape Town. Ä °Ãƒâ€¦Ã… ¸letme AraÃ…Å ¸tÄ ±rmalarÄ ± Dergisi, Vol. 2 (2), pp. 63-74. Woodbine, G., and Liu, J., (2010). Leadership styles and the moral choice of internal auditors. Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organisation Studies, Vol. 15 (1), pp. 28-35.

An Unwilling Hamlet Essay -- William Shakespeare

     Ã‚   In the play, Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, the main character, Hamlet is an unwilling creature. In having to enter and act in the world of his uncle, Hamlet becomes an unwilling creature of that world. When he chooses to obey the ghost's command and revenge his father, Hamlet accepts the inevitability that he must become part of this world. As the ripple of original vengeful intent widens and Hamlet is slowly but surely entangled in Claudius'   brutal world   through his madness, his murders, his plots, his relationship with other characters and his revelations on life and more importantly, death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Even before the ghost urges Hamlet to avenge his death, Hamlet teeters on the edge of his uncle's brutal world. While never evil in intent Hamlet is simply one of the finest tragic heroes. Caught between his agony of mind and indecision Hamlet's nature is neither treacherous like Claudius' nor rash like Laertes'. This combination of values carries only tragedy when one such as Hamlet suffers such a fate as he did. Prior to his dead father's prompting, Hamlet is already devoured by melancholy over the loss of Old Hamlet and his mother's "o'er hasty" marriage to Claudius. This suggests that Hamlet was already inexorably linked to his Uncle's brutal world.   "It is not, nor it cannot come to good."   (Act1, Scene2)   Hamlet also feels jealousy towards his mother as their relationship goes beyond that of a normal parent/child relationship. While perhaps not sexual, their mere fifteen years age difference has enclosed them in a very close-knit co-dependant affair.   "You are the Queen, your husband's brother's wife, And, would it not so, you are my mother." (Act3, Scene4)   This jealousy and hatred Hamlet feels is close... ...d.†   Works Cited delman, Janet. 1985. 'Male Bonding in Shakespeare's Comedies.' In Shakespeare's Rough Magic: Renaissance Essays in Honor of C.L. Barber, edited by Peter Erickson and Coppà ©lia Kahn. Cranbury and London: Associated University Presses, 73-103. Adelman, Janet. 1992. Suffocating Mothers: Fantasies of Maternal Origin in Shakespeare's plays, 'Hamlet' to 'The Tempest'. London and New York: Routledge. Alexander, Nigel. 1971. Poison, Play and Duel: A Study in Hamlet. London: Routledge. Barber, C. L., and Wheeler, Richard P. 1986. The Whole Journey: Shakespeare's Power of Development. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. Partridge, Eric. 1947. Shakespeare's Bawdy. London and New York: Routledge. Rubinstein, Frankie. 1984. A Dictionary of Shakespeare's Sexual Puns and their Significance. London: MacMillan.

Hector McDonald Zoe

Hector Archibald Macdonald was one of the most famous British soldiers of the late 19th century. He had an outstanding reputation for great bravery. Sophie: At the age of 15, hector MacDonald was apprenticed in Dingwall to a draper, and when he was 17 he decided it was time to go into military life so he added a year on to his real age and he moved on to the Royal Clan Tartan and Tweed Warehouse In Inverness . He rose rapidly through the ranks and eventually became a major- general. He first saw action and was commissioned as an officer in the SecondAfghan War in the late 1870s, then distinguished himself in the battle of Majuba Hill in South Africa 1881. Zoe: After working In Britain and Ireland, he was sent to Egypt in 1884. Here he recruited and trained a load of Sudan soldiers that he led Into several victory battles. including one of the most legendary in British history, Omdurman. In 1902 the army sent MacDonald to India to take up a regional command, but he was there for only a short while before being moved to Ceylon as Commanding Officer of British forces.Sophie: But after only 11 months MacDonald was summoned and told he must return to England to answer very grave charges†. Although details still remain unclear, MacDonald was alleged to have committed sexual acts with four Ceylonese youths or to have exposed himself In a train carriage with 70 schoolboys but there Is still so solid proof that he was even gay. Zoe: The brilliant career of a national hero came to an end on the 25th March 1903. While serving in Ceylon grave charges of homosexuality were made against him.Having been sent to England on leave he was returning to Ceylon via Paris to face a court Marshall. In his hotel he read a New York Times report of the charges against him and in despair over it went to his room and committed suicide. Sophie: After his death It was uncovered that he had a secret wife and son. HIS widow arranged for her husband to be buried in secret at 6am on Monday 30th March in Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. The public was shocked not only at the allegations but also at the arrangements of the funeral.On the first Sunday after his burial 30,000 people visited the grave. People queued for up to three hours to pay their respects and there were so many flowers that the superintendent of the cemetery refused to have any more placed. Zoe His wife Christina died in 1911 and was buried next to her husband. Their son, Hector became an engineer in North Shields. He was thought of as stern, gloomy and unsociable; he never married and became excluded from his surrounding community. He died in 1951 and is buried with his parents. IOFI sofi By sofldontcareSophie: At the age of 1 5, hector MacDonald was apprenticed in Dingwall to a draper, in Inverness . He rose rapidly through the ranks and eventually became a major- Afghan War in the late 1870s, then distinguished himself in the battle of MaJuba Hill Zoe: After working in Britain and Ireland, he was sent t o Egypt in 1884. Here he recruited and trained a load of Sudan soldiers that he led into several victory battles, youths or to have exposed himself in a train carriage with 70 schoolboys but there is Sophie: After his death it was uncovered that he had a secret wife and son. His

The eNotes Blog How to Mark National PunctuationDay

How to Mark National PunctuationDay Attention, grammarphiles: today is National Punctuation Day! Commemorated every September 24th, National Punctuation Day is the only holiday in existence to celebrate the wonderful, squiggly world of punctuation marks. In a world where punctuation is rapidly in decline, thanks to texting and trendy writers (ahem, ee cummings and James Frey), this day serves to remind us that a semicolon is not a surgical procedure, nor is an ellipsis the moment when the moon moves in front of the sun. Wondering how you can mark this happy day? Unfortunately, NPD isnt a public holiday (yet). However, there are a few of ways to show your appreciation for all things punctuation-y. The organizers behind National Punctuation Day hold an annual competition. This year, in honor of the 2012 presidential election, they ask their constituents to elect one punctuation mark as president: The rules: Write one paragraph with a maximum of three sentences using the following 13 punctuation marks to explain which should be â€Å"presidential,† and why: apostrophe, brackets, colon, comma, dash, ellipsis, exclamation point, hyphen, parentheses, period, question mark, quotation mark, and semicolon. You may use a punctuation mark more than once, and there is no word limit. Multiple entries are permitted. So much for my dark horse vote for the interpunct. Its uses are gravely underrated, if you ask me. Cast your ballot for one of the other hopefuls by visiting the National Punctuation Day website  and submitting your thoughts. The New Yorkers Questioningly column is also partnering with NPD for its latest competition. In its post Punctuation Nation, Questioningly asks its readers to devise a brand new punctuation mark. The constraints are that it must be made from a combination of two already existing punctuation marks, like the interrobang, for instance (?! or sometimes †½). The column suggests, maybe there should be a ,? mark, which indicates slowness and confusion, or a /\, which indicates disingenuous differentiation between two otherwise similar elements. (What?!) Anyway, you get it. To enter, tweet your suggestion, followed by the hashtag #tnyquestion. You can view all of the current submissions to the contest here. And if both of those competitions fail you, what else is there to do but sulk at home and bake food in the shape of punctuation marks, right? Yup, National Punctuation Day has a recipe for that. Bonus Fun: Havent had your fill yet? What a punc you are. This puzzle should set you straight Insert the proper punctuation in this sentence necessary to make it correct: James while John had had had had had had had had had had had a better effect on the teacher Got it yet? Check your answer here. (No peeking!)

Free Essays on KKK In America

Thesis: Mr. Wade’s book is a survey of the history of the Ku Klux Klan in America. Although it is a survey book, Wade points out the atrocities of the Ku Klux Klan in its rise to power and their tactics of gaining power in the local community. Wade also describes the Ku Klux Klan’s founding, rise to power, decline and resurggence. On such a controversial subject, Wade takes no postion either way in the book, he simply portrays the facts. Contents: Wade’s table of contents contains several important events concerning the Ku Klux Klan. He has 7 different sections in his book: General Information, Founding Fathers and their reasons for founding, Rise to Power, The Peak Years, The Decline, Resurgence and The Future of the Ku Klux Klan. Methodology: Wade uses several different ways of conveying his story other than text. Wade uses many different pictures of things concerning the Ku Klux Klan. Some of the pictures are of Ku Klux Klan rallies, important figure heads including their founders. There are also pictures of the Ku Klux Klan’s crimes against minorities and people that opposed them. There are also pictures and examples of literature and propaganda that the Ku Klux Klan put out to gain support and possibly gain membership. Also Wade shows pictures of the Ku Klux Klan’s opponents and their own rallies protesting their actions. There are also examples of their opponents literature that they used to bring them down. Wade also uses newspaper articles to show the differences of opinion from the Southern state from the Northern States. Summary: As stated earlier Wade’s book is a survey of the history of the Ku Klux Klan in America. Wade’s booke discusses several events in the history of the Ku Klux Klan such as their rise to power in the late 19th century, and their peak in the early part of the 20th century, and their decline then resurgence. Wade also discusses t... Free Essays on KKK In America Free Essays on KKK In America Thesis: Mr. Wade’s book is a survey of the history of the Ku Klux Klan in America. Although it is a survey book, Wade points out the atrocities of the Ku Klux Klan in its rise to power and their tactics of gaining power in the local community. Wade also describes the Ku Klux Klan’s founding, rise to power, decline and resurggence. On such a controversial subject, Wade takes no postion either way in the book, he simply portrays the facts. Contents: Wade’s table of contents contains several important events concerning the Ku Klux Klan. He has 7 different sections in his book: General Information, Founding Fathers and their reasons for founding, Rise to Power, The Peak Years, The Decline, Resurgence and The Future of the Ku Klux Klan. Methodology: Wade uses several different ways of conveying his story other than text. Wade uses many different pictures of things concerning the Ku Klux Klan. Some of the pictures are of Ku Klux Klan rallies, important figure heads including their founders. There are also pictures of the Ku Klux Klan’s crimes against minorities and people that opposed them. There are also pictures and examples of literature and propaganda that the Ku Klux Klan put out to gain support and possibly gain membership. Also Wade shows pictures of the Ku Klux Klan’s opponents and their own rallies protesting their actions. There are also examples of their opponents literature that they used to bring them down. Wade also uses newspaper articles to show the differences of opinion from the Southern state from the Northern States. Summary: As stated earlier Wade’s book is a survey of the history of the Ku Klux Klan in America. Wade’s booke discusses several events in the history of the Ku Klux Klan such as their rise to power in the late 19th century, and their peak in the early part of the 20th century, and their decline then resurgence. Wade also discusses t...

Exit letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Exit letter - Essay Example Surprisingly, I enjoy writing now and I feel more equipped to rise to the challenge of writing more reports in the military standard and with the proper use of the language, too. Before, for prewriting, I would go straight to researching any books given to me on the topic or surfing the Internet. Now, I know that should set my purpose for writing first, whether to show comparison and contrast, or cause and effect; identify my reader; limit my topic; draft a thesis statement that has the topic and controlling idea; brainstorm ideas and information to support the thesis statement; and that it is only when I draw a preliminary outline or map that organizes the main ideas logically. After doing prewriting, that's only when I go to drafting. It's when I put my ideas into sentences and concentrate on elaborating on and supporting my ideas. This only when I start to connect my ideas to each other. I also don't have to pay much attention to spelling and grammar at this stage. I just have to focus on writing what I know about the topic. I am basically writing for myself here-more of just seeing my thoughts unfold. I have read before that the real art of writing starts with rewriting or revising. Now, I think that it's true.

Famine in Southern Sudan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Famine in Southern Sudan - Essay Example The history of civil wars in Sudan is long and has its beginning in the middle of the last century. But Sudanese have never before been faced to such massive famine. The number of victims is varied in the estimations made by the different agencies and scientists – the limits could be presented as 100,000 – 250,000 lost lives (Creusvaux H. et al., 1999). The actions of the Sudanese government were directed not only against rebels but also against their social base, i.e. civilians. The violations of human rights became a general rule in Southern Sudan. â€Å"Divide et empire† – this principle of Roman Caesars was successfully applied in the conditions of one of the poorest countries of the world. Since the beginning of civil war complicated with local ethical conflicts, the rural population of Southern Sudan was pauperized by driving cattle out, burning crops, massacres and seizing Dinkas and Jur people as war booty (HRF, 1998). Mass murdering of civilians and pauperizing make people leave their homeland and increased dependence of refugees on the external relief. Nevertheless, the Sudanese government prohibited all relief flights into the rebel-held province of Bahr El Ghazal. The ban lasted several months and many people did not get urgently needed food because of the political ambitions of Sudanese Muslim leaders. But even after ban canceling the situation was not changed for better - the start-up lag time was too significant. People did not get not only foodstuffs but also seeds for planting (FAO, 1998).